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Foreword As a teacher, my philosophy has always been “the student will give me what I want if he or she knows exactly what I want!” This handbook is my response to having worked with many master and doctoral candidates and reviewing even more published research papers. In my review of textbooks on research, I have found most to be philosophical. That is, they are generally good for the advanced researcher, but, the beginner, the “research dilatant,” wants and needs step-by-step guidance – in essence, “Just tell me what I should write!” The most common problems I have seen are no clearly defined problem statement with negative results, poorly worded research questions, and no understanding of statistical hypotheses – what I call the “researchers mantra.” Other problems include extremely poor word-processing and spreadsheet skills, exiguous aesthetic acumen (i.e., lack of a discerning eye for visual composition), and a tendency to “overwrite,” that is, superfluous narrative and inability to “cut to the chase.” Page length is never, and never should be, a criterion for a good research paper! I have organized this “how to” handbook into the five classic chapters of a research paper – Introduction, Literature Review (Literature Review), Methodology, Findings, and Conclusion – with typical major headings in each chapter and have presented tips and responses to common problems I have observed throughout my work with doctoral and master degree candidates. I have also provided actual words and phrases that should be used for very specific situations in a research document. Follow this guidance and at least your paper will look good and your phraseology will be correct, which is half the battle. The rest is perseverance! My book is an
eBook and can be purchased online. Click on: |
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CONTENTS Foreword
iii The Abstract vi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH WRITING What
Is Research? 1 The
Fundamental Research Process 2 Types
of Research 2 Planning
Your Research 3 The
Classic Research Paper Format 3 The
Research Document Chapters 4 The
Major Headings in Chapter 1 6 The Problem 6 Purpose of the Research 6 Research Question 6 Research Hypothesis 7 Research (Conceptual) Framework 7 Quantitative Studies –Theoretical
Framework 8 Qualitative Studies – Conceptual Framework 8 Role of the Researcher 10 Quantitative – Theoretical
Framework 10 Qualitative – Philosophical
Framework 10 Ontological 10 Epistemological 11 Axiological 11 Methodological 11 Significance of the Study 11 Design and Methodology 12 Quantitative, Qualitative, Mixed
Method 12 Assumptions, Limitations, and
Delimitations 12 Organization of the Study 14 The Problem Statement 14 The Research Question and
Purpose Statement 15 The Conclusion to Your
Research 18 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW The Nature of the Literature Review 19 The Major Headings in Chapter
2 20 Chapter
Overview 20 Background
of the Problem 20 Research
Framework 21 Appropriate
Major Headings 21 Relevant Studies 21 Chapter
Summary 21 Searching for Literature 22 Tips on Reviewing Scholarly
Journals 22 Referencing Resources 23 Writing
Technique and Style 23 Get to the Point! 23 Answer the Question 24 Data, Data, Data 24 Voice
24 Objective vs. Subjective Style 25 Formatting
the Document 25 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY The Major Headings in Chapter 3 27 Chapter Overview 27 Research Question (Restated) 27 Research Design and Rationale 28 Statistical Hypotheses (Quantitative
Only) 28 Data Collection Instrument 28 Study Population and Sample 28 Statistical Procedure and Decision Rule(Quantitative Only) 28 Validity and Reliability 29 Protection of Human and Animal Subjects (Sometimes Appearing as “Ethical
Considerations”) 29 Chapter Summary 29 |
Quantitative,
Qualitative, and Mixed-Methods— The Real Difference 29 Research
Methodologies 0 Qualitative 30 Case Study 31 Ethnography 31 Phenomenological 31 Grounded Theory 31 Context Analysis 32 Narrative 32 Quantitative or Descriptive 32 Historical 32 Experimental 32 Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Synthesis 32 Scientific Research 34 Artistic Research 34 Historical Research 34 Cross-sectional vs. Longitudinal
Study 34 Hypothesis
Statements 35 Statistical
Procedures 35 Student’s t-Test of Hypothesis 6 ANOVA and ANCOVA 36 MANOVA
37 Correlation 38 Multiple Linear Regression 39 Logistic (Binary) Regression 40 Time-Series, Cross-Section/Panel-Corrected Standard Errors (TSCS, PCSE)
Regression 41 Chi-Square
(X2) 42 Mann–Whitney
U 43 Wilcoxon
Signed-rank Test 43 Kruskal-Wallis 44 Summary of Statistical
Procedures 45 Significance Level, Sample
Size, And Decision Rule 46 Significance
Level 46 Sample
Size 46 Decision
Rule 47 Choosing Variables for
Quantitative Testing 48 Demographic
Variables 48 Research Sampling 49 Levels of Data 52 Data Collection
Instruments 54 Surveys and Questionnaires 55 How to Ask a Question 55 Measuring Variables 56 The
Ideal Measure 56 Likert
Scale 56 Level of Perception Questions 56 Strength of Agreement
Questions 56 Respondent
Bias 57 Organizing the Survey
Questions 58 Research Interviews 58 Collecting, Measuring, and
Analyzing Data in Qualitative Research 58 Qualitative
Analysis Tools 59 Analyzing
Qualitative Data from Different Sources 59 How
to Analyze Qualitative Data 59 Identify Key Words, Phrases, and
Themes 59 Organize Key Words, Phrases, and Themes 60 Cluster Analysis 61 Vector Analysis 61 Synthesizing the Answer to the
Research Question 62 Quantitative and Qualitative
Data Analysis Software 62 SPSS 3 R 64 Stata 65 NVivo 65 ATLAS.ti 66 Protection of Human and Animal
Subjects 67 |
Validity and Reliability 68 Types of Validity 68 Concurrent Validity 68 Construct Validity 68 Content Validity 68 Criterion Validity 68 Discriminant Validity 68 Face Validity 69 Predictive Validity 69 Measures
of Validity and Reliability 69 Cronbach’s Alpha (validity and
reliability) 69 Inter-Observer Reliability 69 Test-Retest (Reliability) 69 Parallel Forms Reliability 69 Split-half Reliability 70 Repeated Use (reliability) 70 Alternate/Equivalent Form
(reliability) 70 Validity in Qualitative
Research 70 Threats to Internal and
External Validity 70 Acquiescence
Bias 70 Central
Tendency Bias 70 Contamination 70 Experimenter
Bias 70 Hawthorne
Effect 71 History 71 Instrumentation 71 Interaction 71 Maturation 71 Multiple
Treatment Interference 71 Placebo
Effect 71 Reactive
Effect of Experimental Arrangement 71 Statistical
Regression 71 Social
Desirability Bias 71 Subject
Mortality 71 Subject
Selection 71 Testing 71 Validating Data Collection
Instruments 71 Creating an Original
Instrument 71 Reducing
Instrument Length 71 Congruency
with the Study Population 72 Validating
an Original Instrument 72 Validation
of Qualitative Instruments 72 CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS The
Major Headings in Chapter 4 75 Chapter Overview 75 Research Hypothesis 75 Results and Interpretation 76 Description of the Data Collection and
Analysis Process
76 Other Major Headings and Subheadings 76 Chapter Summary 76 Presenting
Quantitative Findings 76 Presenting
Qualitative Findings 77 Figures,
Charts, Graphs, and Tables 79 APA Format for Tables and Figures 79 Tips for Creating Tables and Figures in MSWORD
79 Findings
and Conclusions 80 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS Answer
the Question! 81 The
Major Headings in Chapter 5 81 Chapter Overview 82 Research Summary 82 Conclusions 82 Discussion 83 Implications for the Practice 83 Recommendations for Further Study 83 |
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APPENDICES Appendix
A – References 85 Appendix
B – Example Surveys 91 Appendix
C – Example Research Problems, Questions, and Conclusions 95 Appendix
D – Examples of Presentation on Findings 105 Appendix
E – t-test,
ANOVA, and ANCOVA in Excel
and SPSS 113 Appendix
F –Multiple Regression in SPSS 121 |
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(Sample
extracts) Chapter
1: Introduction to Research Writing The Researcher’s Mantra: The problem drives the question, the
question drives the methodology, the methodology drives the data collection. WHAT IS RESEARCH? Research has been defined in many
ways: • “In
the broadest sense of the word, the de_ nition of
research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the
advancement of knowledge” (Shuttleworth, 2008). • “Research
is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue” (Creswell, 2008). • According
to the Merriam and Webster Online Dictionary, “A studious inquiry or
examination; especially, investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws
in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws.” Further, “the word research is derived from the Middle French ‘recerche,’ which means ‘to go about seeking,’ the term itself
being derived from the Old French term ‘recerchier’ a compound word from ‘re-‘ + ‘cerchier,’ or ‘sercher,’
meaning ‘search’. _ e earliest recorded use of the
term was in 1577” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2011). • An anonymous source states that “Research is the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method. The primary purpose for basic research (as opposed to applied research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe” (Anonymous 2018). |
THE RESEARCH DOCUMENT CHAPTERS The classic research document is composed of
five chapters as follows: Chapter
1 – Introduction This chapter introduces a problem, states the research
question, explains the research design and methodology,
identifies the significance of the research, and states and describes the organization of the
study. This chapter should have the following major headings: • The Problem • Purpose of the Research • Research Question • Research Hypothesis (Quantitative design only) • Research Framework (“Theoretical” Framework for quantitative
studies, “Conceptual” Framework for qualitative studies) • Role of the Researcher • Significance of the Research • Design and Methodology • Assumptions • Limitations and Delimitations • Organization of the Study Chapter
2 – Literature Review This chapter is an
in-depth disclosure and discussion of the problem as stated in the Statement
of the Problem in Chapter 1 – Introduction and identifies gaps in the
literature, thus presenting the opportunity for your specific research.
Content of this chapter must include data that clearly and substantially
demonstrate the extent and negative effects of the problem. Details are
presented further on. This chapter
should have the following major headings: • Chapter Overview • Context of the Problem (or Background to the Problem) • Research Framework • Other appropriate major headings • Chapter Summary |
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Chapter 3 – Methodology This chapter is an in-depth discussion of the
methodology as stated in the heading Methodology in Chapter – Introduction. Details are presented
further on. This chapter should have the following major headings: • Chapter Overview (should include a restatement of the research
question) • Research Question • Research Design and Rationale • Statistical Hypotheses (Quantitative design only) • Data Collection Instrument(s) (Quantitative and Qualitative
designs) • Study Population and Sample (Quantitative and Qualitative
designs) • Statistical Procedure and Decision Rule (Quantitative only) • Validity and Reliability • Protection of Human and Animal Subjects (Quantitative and
Qualitative designs) • Chapter Summary Chapter
4 – Findings This chapter is an in-depth disclosure and
discussion of your hypothesis or solution to the problem as
presented in the Research Question in Chapter 1 – Introduction. Content of
this chapter must include data that clearly demonstrate the result of the
hypothesis – in essence, the answer to the research question. Surveys,
interviews, and other forms of data collection must be presented and
discussed in this chapter. Major headings in this chapter include the
following: • Chapter Overview • Research Hypotheses (Quantitative design only) • Results and Interpretation • Description of the Data Collection and Analysis • Other Appropriate Major Headings • Chapter Summary Chapter 5
– Conclulsions This chapter restates the problem and research
question, presents your conclusions, discusses the implications of your results to
the problem, and links your conclusions to the theoretical framework (for
quantitative studies) and to studies mentioned in Chapter 2 – Literature
Review and suggestions for further research and lessons learned from doing
the research. _ e major headings in the chapter include the following: • Chapter Overview and Research Summary • Conclusions • Discussion • Implications for the Practice • Recommendations for Further Research Get the book! |
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